Research Highlights
Selected papers across the three connected programme areas: wind-farm–atmosphere interaction, multiscale prediction and physical modelling, and turbulence simulation and high-performance computing. For the complete chronological record, see the publications page.
The highlights show how the three programme areas — wind-farm–atmosphere interaction, multiscale prediction and physical modelling, and turbulence simulation and high-performance computing — connect fundamental transport physics to predictions of wind-farm performance, atmospheric exchange, flow variability, noise, and heat transport.
Six selected contributions are shown first. Four further recent papers and additional thematic selections remain one step away in expandable sections below.
Featured highlights
Flow Structure and Turbulence in Wind Farms
Wind-farm flow is a coupled multiscale problem: turbine wakes interact with atmospheric-boundary-layer momentum supply, farm development, layout, stability, and larger-scale atmospheric conditions.
Key idea: Wake-only and boundary-layer-only descriptions each omit part of the two-way interaction between turbines and atmospheric momentum transport.
Modeling Multiscale Atmospheric Interactions in Wind-Farm Power Spectra
A coherent conditional framework that unifies the tested spectra, but not a unique or out-of-sample validated atmospheric decomposition.
Key idea: Farm-scale smoothing emerges as the balance shifts from coherent mesoscale variability to weakly coherent microscale turbulence and wake effects; the frequency boundaries depend on the site, input spectrum, and layout.
Understanding wind farm power densities
The paper separates wind-farm power loss into a turbine-scale component from interactions within the array and a farm-scale component from the atmospheric boundary layer's response to aggregate drag. This conceptual split clarifies why layout optimization cannot remove the whole-farm momentum-supply limit.
Key idea: Layout changes can reduce internal turbine interactions, but they cannot remove the atmospheric momentum-supply constraint acting on the whole farm. The article synthesizes earlier theory and LES rather than independently deriving this result.
From turbine-scale to wind farm-scale wake recovery: Understanding the transition
Wind-turbine wakes and wind-farm wakes recover through different physical mechanisms. Behind a single turbine, recovery is dominated by spanwise turbulent transport. In the larger wind farms studied, vertical turbulent transport and the downward transport of energy by the mean flow dominate.
Key idea: Turbine-wake recovery and wind-farm-wake recovery are physically different problems.
Recent highlights
Impact of atmospheric turbulence on performance and loads of wind turbines: knowledge gaps and research challenges
This expert review connects atmospheric turbulence from boundary-layer eddies to mesoscale structures and extreme events with single-turbine power and structural loads. It shows why turbulence intensity alone cannot represent the effects of stability, shear, veer, coherence, intermittency, and length scale.
Key idea: Modern rotors sample vertically and temporally heterogeneous flow that neutral, stationary, homogeneous inflow models only partly represent; better observations, coupled modelling, and validation are needed before more realistic design models can be generalized.
Studied scope: Evidence synthesis rather than a new experiment or meta-analysis; focuses mainly on single-turbine atmospheric inflow, performance, and loads, while wake-generated turbulence and farm control are assigned to a companion review. Quantitative examples come from heterogeneous cited field, wind-tunnel, LES, and failure studies and are not universal response laws.
Mean turbulent momentum fluxes and wind deficits in nocturnal stable atmospheric boundary layers
A reanalysis of 16 nocturnal stable-boundary-layer simulations separates the streamwise and spanwise momentum fluxes and shows how rotation turns the stress vector with height. Total stress alone therefore cannot determine the profile exponent; the result is a model built from an existing simulation database, not an independent validation.
Key idea: Total momentum-flux magnitude alone cannot distinguish the new closure from Nieuwstadt's α = 3/2 model; the spanwise flux and two wind-deficit components provide the discriminating evidence.
Studied scope: Analytical model assessed against 16 previously published wall-modelled LES cases for quasi-steady, barotropic, horizontally homogeneous, flat-surface nocturnal boundary layers with moderate stability. Field data support selected flux profiles, but the wind-deficit validation relies mainly on the same LES family. Very stable, subsiding, heterogeneous, turbine, wake, and wind-farm regimes are not tested.
Four more recent highlights
The global properties of nocturnal stable atmospheric boundary layers
Main finding: Across 20 large-eddy simulations, the nocturnal stable-boundary-layer height follows h ∝ √(LfLs), while the two mean wind-gradient components collapse with u*2/(h2f). The resulting geostrophic-drag coefficients reduce to functions of the stability parameter μ.
Key idea: Matching Monin–Obukhov surface-layer profiles to the outer Ekman-layer gradients yields compact drag-law expressions without assuming a separate z-less stratification layer.
Studied scope: Twenty wall-modelled LES cases over a flat, homogeneously rough surface, under quasi-steady, barotropic, horizontally homogeneous conditions, with 16.7 ≤ μ ≤ 193.3. The single-case grid test is a sensitivity check rather than strict convergence. Very stable or intermittent, subsiding, baroclinic, heterogeneous, offshore, turbine, and wind-farm flows are not tested. A 2025 follow-up revises the component-flux exponent from 3/2 to 2 while retaining the global scaling framework.
Simulation and modeling of wind farms in baroclinic atmospheric boundary layers
The article compares four orientations of baroclinic forcing with a barotropic neutral-surface reference and develops a compact wake model. Boussinesq wall-modelled LES uses AMD and filtered actuator disks (C_T=0.75, induction a=0.25). The domain is 102.4 km x 10.24 km x 10 km, resolved by 2048 x 512 x 384 points (50 m x 20 m, 10 m vertically to 1.5 km, stretched to 62 m aloft).
Key idea: Aggregate-wake recovery combines turbulence-controlled wake expansion with an upward displacement of the maximum velocity deficit caused by height-dependent entrainment in a sheared boundary layer. A reduced model needs both effects to reproduce the LES ordering.
Studied scope: One aligned 10 × 6 actuator-disk farm in a conventionally neutral boundary layer, comparing one barotropic case with four directions of baroclinicity at a single shear magnitude while matching hub-height speed and direction. The reported row-power changes and fitted wake constants are case-specific. The three-hour statistics, same-LES model calibration, and absence of grid, field, magnitude, layout, stability, and operational sensitivity prevent general design claims.
Modeling wind farm noise emission and propagation: Effects of flow and layout
In one modeled stable-atmosphere case, a staggered 4 × 4 wind farm produced spatially averaged downwind sound levels about 3 dBA higher than the aligned layout beyond 2 km. The coupled calculation attributes the difference to both layout-dependent turbine source emission and sound propagation through the wind-farm flow.
Key idea: Wake-reduced wind and rotor speed suppress trailing-edge noise downstream, while turbulence-driven inflow noise persists. Superposed wake shear also creates focusing and amplitude-modulation patterns that isolated-turbine propagation misses.
Studied scope: One isolated turbine and one aligned-versus-staggered 4 × 4 comparison in a time-averaged stable atmospheric boundary layer, using inflow- and trailing-edge-noise sources and N × 2D propagation from 50 to 1080 Hz. One ground model, a two-hour mean flow, and no unsteady scattering, fully three-dimensional propagation, numerical-sensitivity study, field validation, layout ensemble, or human-response analysis. Some mapped levels are below a typical 30 dBA rural background; this is a case comparison, not a universal layout rule.
Low-frequency wind speed variations and their impact on wind farm performance
Conditional numerical evidence for wake-history asymmetry under prescribed speed forcing, not a field-validated mesoscale response law.
Key idea: Wakes carry the history of upstream conditions: acceleration advects weaker wakes produced at lower past speeds, whereas deceleration advects stronger ones. Above-rated changes in turbine thrust can oppose this effect, so wind history alone does not determine the farm response.
Studied scope: One 7 × 4 DTU 10 MW actuator-disk farm at 7D × 5D in a neutral, horizontally homogeneous boundary layer, driven by one six-hour mast-derived speed signal repeated three times and a synthetic frequency scan. Only spatially uniform streamwise-speed forcing was tested. No non-neutral, direction-changing, terrain, layout, controller-dynamics, uncertainty, farm-grid, or field-power validation study was performed. The 3%–5% difference and roughly three-minute transition are case-specific, not operational predictions.
Further highlights by theme
Wind-farm turbulence and wake physics
Wake interaction, farm-scale recovery, and turbulent energy replenishment.
Large wind farms operate in a multiscale turbulent flow. Turbine wakes interact with neighboring turbines, merge into farm-scale wakes, and alter the exchange of momentum between the surface layer and the atmosphere above. We use large-eddy simulation and reduced-order modeling to understand these processes and improve predictive wind-farm models. See also the wind-farm LES and analytical wind-farm modeling pages.
- Flow Structure and Turbulence in Wind Farms - also featured above.
- From turbine-scale to wind farm-scale wake recovery - also featured above.
Understanding wind farm power densities
The paper separates wind-farm power loss into a turbine-scale component from interactions within the array and a farm-scale component from the atmospheric boundary layer's response to aggregate drag. This conceptual split clarifies why layout optimization cannot remove the whole-farm momentum-supply limit.
Key idea: Layout changes can reduce internal turbine interactions, but they cannot remove the atmospheric momentum-supply constraint acting on the whole farm. The article synthesizes earlier theory and LES rather than independently deriving this result.
Effects of turbine spacing on the power output of extended wind-farms
Fully developed power in staggered arrays approximately organizes by the geometric-mean turbine spacing, whereas aligned arrays remain controlled mainly by streamwise spacing; entrance-region and fully developed objectives can therefore favour different layouts.
Key idea: Downward vertical kinetic-energy flux correlated with deep-array power density. Aligned columns concentrated this flux and recovered locally faster, yet staggered arrays generally produced more power because they avoided persistent direct alignment and provided a longer direct-wake recovery distance.
Impact of wind farm wakes on flow structures in and around downstream wind farms
An upstream wind-farm wake changed power and turbulent transport throughout the downstream farm, not only at its first row. Increasing the gap from 5 to 15 km raised the downstream first-row power from 67% to 87% of the upstream first-row value in the tested staggered cases.
Key idea: Farm-to-farm wake interaction changes power and recovery through multiple downstream rows, not only at the entrance.
Effect of thrust coefficient on the flow blockage effects in closely-spaced spanwise-infinite turbine arrays
In the tested spanwise-infinite arrays, tight lateral spacing increased first-row power relative to an isolated row, while seven downstream rows decreased it. These opposing layout effects mean that a wind farm's first row is not a neutral reference for blockage or total-farm performance.
Key idea: The first row already contains two opposing neighbor effects, so it is a layout-dependent baseline.
Large eddy simulations of the effect of vertical staggering in large wind farms
Vertical staggering increased cumulative power in the first two rows by up to 20% in the strongest tested case, but produced little or negative benefit over the last four rows in most cases. The diagnostics are consistent with local wake avoidance improving the entrance without increasing the downward turbulent energy supply to the deep farm.
Key idea: Avoiding wakes near the farm entrance does not necessarily increase the atmospheric energy supply or downstream performance.
Comparison of wind farm large eddy simulations using actuator disk and actuator line models with wind tunnel experiments
The actuator-line model reproduces the near-wake velocity and turbulence profiles better through approximately three rotor diameters. Farther downstream, the mean profiles predicted by the actuator-line and actuator-disk models become increasingly similar. Including nacelle and tower forces further improves the local near-wake prediction.
Key idea: Turbine-model fidelity depends on the wake distance and quantity being evaluated; one representation is not uniformly superior.
Atmospheric coupling and wind-energy limits
Stability, low-level jets, geostrophic forcing, and available kinetic energy.
Wind-farm performance is controlled by the atmospheric boundary layer. Stability, low-level jets, baroclinicity, geostrophic forcing, and turbulent momentum transport determine how much kinetic energy is available to the farm and how quickly wakes recover. See also the turbulent boundary layer page.
- Understanding wind farm power densities - also featured above.
- The global properties of nocturnal stable atmospheric boundary layers, and Mean turbulent momentum fluxes and wind deficits in nocturnal stable atmospheric boundary layers - also listed under Recent highlights above.
Geostrophic drag law for conventionally neutral atmospheric boundary layers revisited
Main finding: Across 24 idealized conventionally neutral atmospheric-boundary-layer LES, the dimensionless 5%-momentum-flux height |f|h/u* decreased systematically as the stratification-to-rotation ratio N/|f| increased from 42 to 1350. A curve fitted within the same simulation campaign organized the cases, while selected field estimates showed broad consistency rather than independent validation.
Key idea: The ratio of free-atmosphere stratification to planetary rotation provides a physically motivated coordinate for organizing the depth of an inversion-capped, conventionally neutral boundary layer.
Universal Wind Profile for Conventionally Neutral Atmospheric Boundary Layers
The study supplies a compact and physically motivated representation that is strongly consistent with its calibration LES. It does not provide independent evidence for a universal wind profile, a parameter-free derivation, or transfer beyond the sampled CNBL family.
Key idea: Zero potential-temperature flux at the surface does not make buoyancy irrelevant throughout an inversion-capped boundary layer. Entrainment near the capping inversion creates a local flux that modifies the wind profile above the surface layer.
Impact of Negative Geostrophic Wind Shear on Wind Farm Performance
The paper tests how a prescribed negative vertical gradient of geostrophic wind changes stable- and neutral-boundary-layer wind-farm performance. Wall-modelled Boussinesq LES uses the AMD SGS closure, concurrent precursor inflow, and actuator-line NREL 5-MW turbines. The 15.36 km x 4.8 km x 4 km domain has 1280 x 640 x 384 points, 12 m x 7.5 m horizontal resolution, 5 m vertical resolution below 1.5 km, and stretching aloft.
Key idea: Additional turbulence aloft is not necessarily beneficial. Negative shear above the low-level jet generated upward turbulent momentum transport that opposed the downward transport supplying the wind farm.
Effect of low-level jet height on wind farm performance
The article asks how a fixed stable-boundary-layer LLJ behaves when it lies above, across, or below a farm's rotor-swept area. Boussinesq LES uses a Lagrangian dynamic SGS closure, Monin–Obukhov wall fluxes, filtered actuator disks, concurrent precursor inflow, two-direction fringe layers, Rayleigh damping, and local turbine yaw control. The moderately stable inflow has G=8 m s^-1, f=1.159e-4 s^-1, offshore z_0=0.002 m, surface cooling 0.5 K h^-1, z_i=131.6 m, z_jet approximately 125 m, u_jet/G=1.21, and z_i/L=2.95.
Key idea: A jet below the rotor caused a severe early-row loss because the negative-shear region had little atmospheric turbulence. Farther downstream, wake-generated turbulence enabled an upward flux from the jet and relative power began to recover.
Multiscale wind-farm variability
Power fluctuations driven by atmospheric and array-scale motions.
Wind-farm power varies over seconds, minutes, hours, and longer atmospheric time scales. We study how coherent atmospheric motions, turbulent structures, and turbine-array interactions shape aggregate power fluctuations.
- Modeling Multiscale Atmospheric Interactions in Wind-Farm Power Spectra - also featured above.
- Low-frequency wind speed variations and their impact on wind farm performance - also listed under Recent highlights above.
Temporal structure of aggregate power fluctuations in large-eddy simulations of extended wind-farms
Spanwise turbine signals are nearly uncorrelated, while downstream signals are correlated with an advection-time delay. Streamwise and whole-farm aggregation suppresses intermediate frequencies more strongly than an independent 1/N expectation because delayed correlated signals partially cancel.
Key idea: Farm aggregation is not simple independent averaging: wake and atmospheric structures travel downstream, phase-shifting correlated turbine signals. The peak shifted with downstream spacing and was smoothed by changing wind direction.
A wavenumber-frequency spectral model for atmospheric boundary layers
This paper establishes an economical leading-order ABL spectral representation and documents its failure modes. It does not establish a complete dynamical model, quantitative prediction error, or wind-farm transfer.
Key idea: Mean flow sets the Doppler shift; random sweeping by larger eddies gives each spatial scale a range of observed frequencies. The simple model underestimates low-wavenumber scatter, where scale separation and omitted dynamics matter most.
Wind-farm noise and environmental impact
Wake, layout, terrain, and atmospheric effects on sound.
Wind-farm flow physics affects more than power production. Wakes, turbine layout, atmospheric turbulence, and rotor operating conditions influence noise emission, propagation, and amplitude modulation.
- Modeling wind farm noise emission and propagation: Effects of flow and layout - also listed under Recent highlights above.
Wake-induced variations in noise levels and amplitude modulation for two interacting wind turbines
The paper demonstrates that predicted pair AM is structurally sensitive to geometry and timing inputs. Its 400 s beat is an illustrative sensitivity experiment, not evidence that staggered layouts generate that physical timescale.
Key idea: Pair orientation separately changes source strength, wake refraction, and rotor-timing effects; these are numerical case results, not a universal siting rule.
Three-dimensional effects of the wake on wind turbine sound propagation using parabolic equation
The paper makes 3D horizontal refraction a load-bearing modelling concern for long, laterally sheared wakes. It does not validate the focal magnitudes or establish a general stability or annoyance rule.
Key idea: Independent vertical propagation planes capture vertical focusing but can miss horizontal wake refraction and strongly underpredict stable-condition focal levels and modulation.
Impact of a Two-Dimensional Steep Hill on Wind Turbine Noise Propagation
Main finding: In one neutral, idealized 100 m ridge calculation, placing the turbine immediately upstream produced a strong modeled OASPL dip roughly 250-600 m downwind, but hill-wake refraction restored levels near 700 m to about the flat-case value; farther downwind, levels were about 4 dBA lower than flat. This coupled LES/source/acoustic result is case-specific, not a general siting rule or field validation.
Key idea: Terrain is not only an acoustic barrier: by reshaping the mean flow and turbine wake, it can create new focusing zones, so source emission, shielding, and refraction must be separated.
High-performance simulation and open-source tools
Scalable LES and DNS for wind farms and canonical turbulence.
High-fidelity turbulence simulations require scalable numerical methods and efficient use of modern supercomputers. We develop and use simulation tools for wind-farm LES and canonical DNS, including the open-source AFiD framework.
AFiD-GPU: a versatile Navier-Stokes Solver for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows on GPU Clusters
AFiD-GPU is a high-performance implementation of the AFiD incompressible Navier-Stokes solver for GPU clusters. It enables large-scale simulations of canonical turbulent flows such as Rayleigh-Bénard convection, Taylor-Couette flow, channel flow, and plane Couette flow.
Key idea: Open, scalable simulation tools are essential for connecting fundamental turbulence physics with high-resolution numerical experiments.
Comparison of computational codes for direct numerical simulations of turbulent Rayleigh-Bénard convection
This is credible cross-implementation validation of global heat transport and a strong negative demonstration against Nu-only fidelity checks. It is not cross-code validation of the earlier local boundary-layer profile claims or a hardware-independent code leaderboard.
Key idea: Agreement in a global heat-transfer number is not sufficient evidence of a resolved DNS: deliberately under-resolved higher-Rayleigh-number runs retain plausible Nusselt values while their near-wall temperature fields show grid-imprinted artifacts.
Canonical turbulence and thermal convection
Transport, coherent structures, and scaling in controlled turbulent flows.
Canonical turbulent flows provide controlled systems for studying transport, coherent structures, and scaling behavior. These studies support the physical understanding and numerical methods used across our work on wind-energy and environmental flows. See also the thermal convection page.
Optimal heat transport in rotating Rayleigh-Bénard convection at large Rayleigh numbers
Across the tested rotating-convection DNS, the inverse Rossby number giving the sampled maximum normalized heat transport first increased and then decreased with Rayleigh number. For Pr = 4.38 and 6.4, the maximum enhancement fell from roughly 20%–30% at lower Rayleigh number to about 5% by Ra = 10¹⁰.
Key idea: The low-Rayleigh-number boundary-layer rule stops locating the optimum after the simulated vortices lose vertical coherence. The associated pseudo-shear threshold is a correlated indicator, not an independently isolated cause.
DOI Open-access manuscript Figure and explanation Rotating-convection page
Multiple heat transport maxima in confined-rotating Rayleigh-Bénard convection
At Ra = 7 × 10⁸ and Pr = 4.38, the sampled rotation-confinement DNS map contained three separated normalized heat-transport maxima: confinement-only, double-vortex, and single-vortex states. Across the four-Rayleigh-number matrix, the double-vortex maximum reached about 50% enhancement at lower Ra but less than 20% at the two higher Ra. The discrete, interpolated cylinder dataset does not define universal optima or uniquely isolate a mechanism.
Key idea: Rotation and confinement are both stabilizing controls, but their joint heat-transport response is nonadditive because different combinations support different domain-spanning flow states. The boundary-layer and state diagnostics organize the response without uniquely partitioning its cause.
DOI Open access Illustrated main finding Rotating-convection page
Passive scalar transport in Couette flow
Passive-scalar transport in smooth turbulent Couette flow followed Nu ≈ 0.015 Pr^(1/2) Re_b^(3/4) over the tested intermediate range. The scaling is consistent with a Reynolds-analogy link between scalar flux and wall stress, not a universal high-Reynolds-number asymptote.
Key idea: Coupling scalar transfer to measured wall friction explains the observed three-quarter-power dependence in this smooth-Couette DNS range; the exponent is conditional on that finite-range friction scaling.
Strong alignment of prolate ellipsoids in Taylor-Couette flow
In the tested Taylor-vortex flows, larger prolate ellipsoids clustered near vortex cores and developed a sharp tangential alignment. The strongest alignment coincided with low local axial vorticity and reduced particle rotation, but causality was not independently isolated.
Key idea: Coherent Taylor vortices organize both where finite-size particles accumulate and how they orient, but the coupled particle size, loading, response, and flow-regime changes prevent a causal attribution to any one factor.
Calculation of the mean velocity profile for strongly turbulent Taylor-Couette flow at arbitrary radius ratios
Across the tested radius ratios, a curvature length organized the transition from a near-wall shear-dominated logarithmic layer to a curvature-affected layer and an approximately constant-angular-momentum bulk.
Key idea: Curvature introduces a second profile scale, but the fitted regions require sufficient scale separation and are not observed at every tested radius ratio and driving strength.
Direct numerical simulations of spiral Taylor-Couette turbulence
Near the simulated laminar–turbulent transition, spiral Taylor–Couette turbulence followed finite-wavelength Ginzburg–Landau-type amplitude scaling. The preferred axial wavelength was 41 ± 2 gap widths at radius ratio 0.91, and the spiral traveled with the domain-mean angular velocity rather than the arithmetic mean cylinder speed.
Key idea: A finite-wavelength instability organizes turbulent–laminar spirals, while their wavelength changes turbulent fraction and angular-momentum transport in the tested periodic system.
Direct numerical simulations of Taylor-Couette turbulence: the effects of sand grain roughness
Modeled sand-grain roughness on the inner cylinder increased plume activity, angular-momentum transport, and torque. For this surface, the equivalent sand-grain height was 1.33 times the nominal roughness height and the roughness-sublayer height was 2.78 times the equivalent height.
Key idea: Roughness changes both the near-wall structures and the global angular-momentum flux, but the fitted roughness constants remain surface-specific.
Turbulent thermal superstructures in Rayleigh-Bénard convection
Thermal superstructures persist through Ra=10^9 in the sampled Pr=1 simulations; no weakening with Ra is found over this finite range. Approximate large-domain thresholds reported are Γ≈4 for Nu and volume Reynolds number, 8 for horizontally averaged higher moments and temperature–vertical-velocity correlation, 32 for integral scales, and 64 for spectral peak locations.
Key idea: Heat transport can appear converged in a domain that is still too narrow to reproduce the largest flow structures.
DOI Open access Thermal convection page Illustrated main finding
How wide must Rayleigh–Bénard cells be to prevent finite aspect ratio effects in turbulent flow?
Required width is observable specific—about four for selected integrals but up to 16 for variance/local organization here. No universal width or ultimate-regime sufficiency follows.
Key idea: A converged Nusselt number does not guarantee that large-scale flow organization is free of finite-domain effects.
DOI Open access Superstructures page Illustrated main finding
Scaling relations for heat and momentum transport in sheared Rayleigh-Bénard convection
Across the tested Couette- and Poiseuille-forced DNS, ReS/ReR organized a common non-monotonic response: moderate shear reoriented and swept thermal plumes, lowering Nu by 18%–26% at the sampled minima, whereas stronger shear produced recovery or enhancement and a friction response consistent with Prandtl's logarithmic law.
Key idea: The competition between imposed shear and the convection-generated wind, rather than imposed shear alone, organizes the transport crossover.
DOI Open access Figure and explanation Sheared convection page
Public-facing results
Accessible examples of the practical consequences of flow physics.
Some results provide especially clear examples of why wind-farm flow physics matters beyond specialist turbulence research.
- Effect of low-level jet height on wind farm performance, and Modeling wind farm noise emission and propagation - also listed above.
Enhanced wind-farm performance using windbreaks
Low windbreaks (h/z_h=0.12) increase total six-row farm power by about 10–14% and first-row power by about 20–25% across the tested distances. Intermediate windbreaks (h/z_h=0.24) can produce larger gains at close placement but become strongly distance dependent; high windbreaks (0.36–0.48) often reduce total farm power.
Key idea: A barrier's local turbine benefit is not a farm-level design criterion. The added horizontal total-pressure flux must outweigh barrier drag, slower wake recovery, reduced vertical energy transport, and dissipation.
For the complete chronological list of peer-reviewed articles, see the publications page.